Migration history Hoa people

1 migration history

1.1 2nd century bce–14th century ad: history
1.2 immigration: 15th-18th centuries
1.3 nguyễn dynasty , french rule: 19th-20th centuries
1.4 statehood under north vietnam , south vietnam: 1950-1975
1.5 departure vietnam: 1975-1990
1.6 since 1986

migration history
2nd century bce–14th century ad: history

according old vietnamese historical records Đại việt sử ký toàn thư , khâm định việt sử thông giám cương mục ( 欽定越史通鑑綱目 ), dương vương (thục phán) prince of chinese state of shu (蜀, shares same chinese character surname thục), sent father first explore southern chinese provinces of guangxi , yunnan , second move people modern-day northern vietnam during invasion of qin dynasty.

some modern vietnamese believe thục phán came upon Âu việt territory (modern-day northernmost vietnam, western guangdong, , southern guangxi province, capital in today cao bằng province). after assembling army, defeated king hùng vương xviii, last ruler of hồng bàng dynasty, around 257 bce. proclaimed himself dương vương ( king dương ). renamed newly acquired state văn lang Âu lạc , established new capital @ phong khê in present-day phú thọ town in northern vietnam, tried build cổ loa citadel, spiral fortress approximately ten miles north of new capital.

han chinese migration vietnam dates 2nd century bce when chinese emperor qin shi huang first placed tonkin under qin rule, influx of qin chinese soldiers , fugitives central china settled en masse tonkin time onwards, , introduced chinese influences ancient viet people. chinese military leader zhao tuo founded trieu dynasty ruled nanyue in southern china , northern vietnam. qin governor of canton advisted zhao found own independent kingdom since area remote , there many chinese settlers in area. century later, powerful han dynasty conquered , annexed nanyue han empire , ruled province of china next several hundred years. after conquest of nanyue in 111 bc, yue inhabitants gradually displaced poorer land on hills or mountains han empire established 9 new commanderies administer former nanyue territories. han control proceeded expand further southwestward military means after conquest. sinification of nanyue brought combination of han imperial military power, regular settlement , influx of han chinese refugees, merchants, scholars, bureaucrats, fugitives, , prisoners of war. conquest made possible extend han empire s power projection , maritime influence further develop trade relations various kingdoms in southeast asia. chinese prefect of jiaozhi shi xie ruled vietnam autonomous warlord , posthumously deified later vietnamese emperors. shi xie leader of elite ruling class of han chinese families immigrated vietnam , played major role in developing vietnam s culture. many chinese fled vietnamese part of red river valley shaanxi , shanxi provinces during tumult occurred during transition western eastern jin dynasty, when northern china plunged anarchy. chinese rulers encouraged immigration of han chinese tonkin, , implemented policy of systematic assimilation ancient viet people. policy continually enforced on next 1,000 years of chinese rule of vietnam until ngô dynasty when vietnamese regained independence china. vietnamese emperors deported 87,000 chinese nationals, although large minority applied permanent residency in vietnam. chinese chose remain in vietnam adopted vietnamese customs , culture. vietnamese women wedded new chinese gentry migrants. revolt against china mounted ly bon of chinese descent.

the founder of lý dynasty, emperor lý bôn, rebelled against liang dynasty came family of chinese descent, ancestors of family chinese fled vietnam wang mang s seizure of power during interregnum between western , eastern han dynasties.

sporadic chinese migration vietnam continued between 9th 15th century ad. vietnamese court during lý dynasty , trần dynasty welcomed ethnic chinese scholars , officials fill administrative , bureaucratic ranks, these migrants had renounce chinese nationality , assimilate vietnamese society. vietnamese court allowed chinese refugees, consisted of civilian , military officials family members seek asylum in vietnam. however, these chinese settlers not allowed change place of residence without court s permission, , required adopt vietnamese dress , culture. during lê dynasty chinese captured in 995 after vietnamese raided border. during lý dynasty vietnam raided song dynasty china enslave chinese, forced serve in vietnamese army soldiers. in 1050 cham dedicated chinese slaves goddess lady po nagar @ po nagar temple complex, along thai, khmer, , burmese slaves. has been speculated professor kenneth hall these slaves war captives taken cham port of panduranga after cham conquered port , enslaved of inhabitants, including foreigners living there. in south, daoyi zhilue mentioned chinese merchants went cham ports in champa, married cham women, whom regularly returned after trading voyages. 1 notable example of such intermarriages chinese merchant quanzhou, wang yuanmao, in 12th century traded extensively champa, , married cham princess. chinese prisoners returned china captured districts in 1078 after china defeated Đại việt , overran several of cao bằng province s districts.

the founder of lý dynasty, lý thái tổ (lý công uẩn) 李公蘊 has been ascribed of having origins fujian province somewhere in paternal bloodline while little known maternal side except fact mother woman named phạm thị. few direct details parents known, however, ethnic chinese background of lý công uẩn, @ least on paternal side has been accepted vietnamese historian trần quốc vượng.

the ancestors of trần clan originated province of fujian before migrated under trần kinh (陳京, chén jīng) Đại việt, mixed-blooded descendants established trần dynasty ruled Đại việt. descendants of trần clan came rule Đại việt of mixed-blooded descent due many intermarriages between trần , several royal members of lý dynasty alongside members of royal court in case of trần lý , trần thừa, latter son trần thái tông later become first emperor of trần dynasty. descendants established tran dynasty, ruled vietnam (dai viet). of mixed-blooded descendants , members of clan still speak chinese, when yuan dynasty envoy met chinese-speaking tran prince trần quốc tuấn in 1282. first of trần clan live in Đại việt trần kinh, settled in tức mặc village (now mỹ lộc, nam Định) lived fishing.

people song dynasty china zhao zhong , xu zongdao fled tran dynasty ruled vietnam after mongol invasion of song. ancestor of tran, trần kinh had originated present day fujian province of china did daoist cleric xu zongdao recorded mongol invasion , referred them northern bandits .

a vietnamese woman , chinese man parents of phạm nhan (nguyễn bá linh). fought against tran yuan dynasty. dong trieu mother s place.

fujian origin of ethnic chinese tran migrated vietnam along large amount of other chinese during ly dynasty served officials. distinctly chinese last names found in tran , ly dynasty imperial exam records. ethnic chinese recorded in tran , ly dynasty records of officials. clothing, food, , language chinese dominated in van don tran had moved after leaving home province of fujian. chinese language still spoken tran in vietnam. ocean side area of vietnam colonized chinese migrants fujian included tran among them located capital s southeastern area. red river delta subjected migration fujian including tran , van don port arose result of interaction. guangdong , fujian chinese moved halong located van don coastal port during ly anh tong s rule in order engage in commerce. usurpation of ly occurred after married fishing fujianese tran family.

china s province of zhejiang around 940s origin of chinese hồ/hú family hồ dynasty founder emperor hồ quý ly came from.

the vietnamese elites descended mixed marriages between chinese , vietnamese viewed other non vietnamese people beneath them , inferior due chinese influence.

early immigration: 15th-18th centuries

after fourth chinese domination of vietnam recorded union of vietnamese women , chinese (ngô) men produced offspring left behind in vietnam, , chams, cẩu hiểm, laotians, these people, , vietnamese natives collaborated ming made slaves of le government in complete annals of Đại việt.

there no mandatory required reparation of voluntarily remaining ming chinese in vietnam. return of ming chinese china commanded ming , not le loi. trai made supporters of le loi in campaign. lived among trai @ border regions leader , seized ming ruled lowland kinh areas after forming base in southern highland regions. southern dwelling trai , red river dwelling vietnamese in effect locked in civil war during anti ming rebellion le loi.

the leader lưu bác công (liu bogong) in 1437 commanded dai viet military squad made out of ethnic chinese since after independence of dai viet, chinese remained behind. vietnam received chinese defectors yunnan in 1400s.

the chinese living in mekong delta area settled there before vietnamese settled in region. when ming dynasty fell, several thousand chinese refugees fled south , extensively settled on cham lands , in cambodia. of these chinese young males, , took cham women wives. children identified more chinese culture. migration occurred in 17th , 18th centuries. in 17th century many chinese men southeastern chinese provinces fujian continued move southeast asia, including vietnam, many of chinese married native women after settling down in places hội an.

in 16th century, lê anh tông of lê dynasty encouraged traders visit vietnam opening thăng long (hanoi), huế , hội an. chinese presence in huế/hội area dated 1444, when monk fujian built buddhist temple, chua chuc thanh. hội developed trading port 16th century onwards, when chinese , japanese traders began arrive in city in greater numbers. when italian jesuit priest, father christofo borri, visited city in 1618, aptly described city as: city of faifo vast 1 think 2 juxtaposed cities; chinese city , japanese city. japanese traders disappeared first half of 17th century tokugawa shogunate imposed policy of self-isolation, , when dutch traders such francisco groemon visited hội in 1642, japanese population no more 50 people, while chinese numbered 5,000 individuals.

hội first city take on refugees ming dynasty following manchu conquest. association these refugees, commonly referred ming-huong-xa (明香社) first appeared between 1645-53. around time, hội , vietnamese territories further south under control of nguyễn lords, , nguyễn rulers allowed vietnamese refugees freely settle in disputed frontier lands remnants of champa kingdom , khmer empire. according dai nam chronicle, chinese general guangxi, duong ngan dich led band of 3,000 ming loyalists huế seek asylum. nguyễn court allowed duong , followers resettle in Đồng nai, had been newly acquired khmers. duong s followers named settlement minh huong , recall allegiance ming dynasty. more chinese refugees followed suit settle in hội , frontier territory in cochinchina such mạc cửu, had earlier settled in kampot–hà tiên area in 1680s under patronage of cambodian king, chey chettha iv. however, cambodia fell thai rule under taksin, and, in 1708, mạc cửu switched alliance nguyễn lords, paying tribute huế. mạc cửu given autonomy rule ha tien in return tribute, , throughout 18th century descendants implemented own administrative policies, independent of huế , cambodia. presence of these semi-autonomous fiefdoms run chinese refugees encouraged more chinese settle in south. in contrast, few chinese refugees chose settle in territories controlled trịnh lords, still mandated chinese refugees strictly follow vietnamese customs , refrain contacts local vietnamese populace in cities.

vietnamese women wedded wives of han chinese minh hương 明鄉 moved vietnam during ming dynasty s fall. formed new group of people in vietnamese society , worked nguyễn government. both khmer , vietnamese women wedded chinese men of minh hương. chinese culture practiced these chinese men despite them marrying vietnamese women. ha tien came under control of mo jiu (ma cuu), chinese among mekong delta ming migrants. lang cau, cam pho, chiem, , cu lao in hoi sites of settlement minh huong result of native women becoming wives of fujianese chinese. minh hương community descended vietnamese wedding youthful chinese men in cochinchina , hoi in nguyễn lands. new migration established distinct chinese diaspora group in vietnam unlike in ancient times when vietnamese upper class absorbed ethnic chinese had come. minh hương ethnically hyrid chinese , vietnamese descended chinese men , vietnamese women. lived in rural areas , in urban areas. chinese citizens in vietnam groups huaqiao french while minh huong permanent residents of vietnam ethnic chinese. make commerce easier, vietnamese female merchants wedded chinese male merchants wedded in hoi an. trần thượng xuyên 陳上川 dương ngạn Địch 楊彥迪 2 chinese leaders in 1679 brought minh huong south vietnam live under nguyen lords.

the ming chinese refugees male immigrants married local vietnamese or khmer women while fostering strong chinese cultural identity in descendants. chinese trade , immigration began increase towards earlier half of 18th century population , economic pressures encouraged more chinese men seek trade opportunities in southeast asia, including vietnam. around time descendants of ming chinese refugees–often referred ming huong chinese–begin foster separate ethno-cultural identity newer chinese immigrants, whom refer thanh nhan (清人) , or qing people. thanh nhan form independent chinese associations along same dialect group or clans in cities , towns large populations prevail, including cholon, hội , towns in mekong delta. minh huong chinese formed similar associations, , notable examples include Đình minh hương gia thạnh in cholon, , dinh tien hien lang minh huong in hội an. both groups of chinese active in interior affairs of vietnamese society; notable minh huong chinese such trinh hoai duc , ngo nhan tinh became ministers under nguyễn court during gia long s reign. many thanh nhan chinese participated ragtag militia during tây sơn rebellion, although loyalties divided based on location of residence. thanh nhan chinese in gia Định , biên hòa sided gia long, whereas chinese in mekong delta regions sided khmers until late 1790s.

nguyễn dynasty , french rule: 19th-20th centuries

hoa merchant in hanoi (1885, photography charles-Édouard hocquard)

the thanh nhan chinese made living exporting rice other southeast asian countries, , participation increased in years during 18th century after tây sơn rebellion. under local laws, rice exports other countries tightly regulated, chinese largely ignored rule , exported rice en masse. prices of rice witnessed increase of 50-100% in 1820s result of these exports, irked nguyễn court under emperor minh mạng. minh mạng s mandarin, lê văn duyệt noticed chinese had great autonomy on trade affairs in gia dinh, partly attributed patronage of trinh hoai duc serving governor of province. minh mạng introduced new series of measures curb chinese trade 1831 onwards, , started introducing new restrictions residents banned overseas travel, culminated in brief revolt among gia dinh s residents in 1833. nguyễn court experimented measures assimilate chinese immigrants; in 1839 edict issued abolish chinese clan associations in vietnamese-ruled cambodia, proved ineffective. minh mạng s son, thiệu trị, introduced new law allow chinese-born immigrants register chinese clan associations, whereas local born male descendants allowed register minh-huong-xa , adorn vietnamese costume. nguyễn court showed signs of subtle discrimination against people of chinese origin; 1 minh huong chinese promoted mandarin. sharply contrasted high representation of people of chinese descent able serve nguyễn court under gia long s reign.

chinese immigration vietnam visibly increased following french colonisation of vietnam 1860 onwards following signing of convention of peking whereby rights of chinese seek employment overseas officially recognised chinese, british , french authorities. unlike vietnamese predecessors, french receptive of these chinese immigrants provided opportunity stimulate trade , industry, , found employment labourers or middlemen. french established special immigration bureau in 1874 requiring chinese immigrants register chinese clan , dialect group associations , eased trade restrictions in place. historians such khanh tran viewed divide-and-rule policy, , intention of implementation minimise chances of internal revolt against french authorities. chinese population nevertheless witnessed exponential increase in late 19th century , more in 20th century; between 1870s , 1890s, 20,000 chinese settled in cochinchina. 600,000 arrived in 1920s , 1930s, , peaks in migration patterns pronounced during 1920s , late 1940s when effects of fighting , economic instability arising chinese civil war became pronounced.

crocodiles eaten vietnamese while taboo , off limits chinese. vietnamese women married chinese men adopted chinese taboo.

vietnamese women wedded chinese helped sell viet minh rice. customarily intermarriage between chinese , vietnamese has consisted of vietnamese female exogamy, because chinese men wealthier , seen better able support wife other way around.

statehood under north vietnam , south vietnam: 1950-1975

at party plenum in 1930, indochinese communist party made statement chinese treated on equal footing vietnamese, defining them workers , labourers among chinese nationals allies of vietnamese revolution . 1 year after state of north vietnam established, mutual agreement made between communist party of china , communist party of vietnam give ethnic chinese living in north vietnam vietnamese citizenship. process completed end of 1950s.

stores owned vietnamese , chinese robbed , vietnamese women attacked frenchmen had been jailed during occupation of indochina japanese.

around same time in south vietnam, president ngô Đình diệm issued series of measures between 1955 , 1956 integrate ethnic chinese south vietnamese society:

7 december 1955: nationality law passed automatically qualified vietnamese residents of mixed chinese , vietnamese parentage south vietnamese citizens.
21 august 1956: decree 48 passed made ethnic chinese born in vietnam south vietnamese citizens, irrespective of family wishes. first-generation immigrants born in china, however, not allowed apply vietnamese citizenship , had apply residential permits renewed periodically, on top of paying residential taxes.
29 august 1956: decree 52 passed required vietnamese citizens regardless of ethnic origin adopt vietnamese name within 6 months, failing had pay heavy fine.
6 september 1956: decree 53 issued prohibited foreigners engaging in eleven different trades, of dominated ethnic chinese. foreign shareholders required liquidate business or transfer ownership vietnamese citizens within 6 months 1 year, , failure result in deportation or fine of 5 million piastres.

as ethnic chinese in vietnam holders of roc nationality in 1955, measures reduced number of expatriate chinese in south vietnam. fourth decree in particular had effect of encouraging chinese businessmen transfer assets local-born children. in 1955, number of roc nationals stood @ 621,000, reduced 3,000 1958. south vietnamese government later relaxed stance foreign-born chinese in 1963, , new nationality law passed allow them choice retain roc nationality or adopt south vietnamese citizenship. following year, statistics office created new census category, nguoi viet goc hoa (vietnamese people of chinese origin), whereby vietnamese citizens of chinese heritage identified such in official documents. no further major measures implemented integrate or assimilate chinese after 1964. chinese sought cultural , economic pursuits more actively during president thiệu s rule, in manufacturing, finance , transport industries. @ grassroots level, ethnic vietnamese resentment against chinese widespread dominance on south vietnamese economy.

in north vietnam, favorable situation of chinese minority began deteriorate during vietnam war. in 1967-1968, friction started occur in sino-drv relations, because people s republic of china disapproved both hanoi’s broadening cooperation soviet union , north vietnamese decision start negotiations u.s. in paris. inspired chinese embassy, official newspaper of ethnic chinese community published number of anti-soviet articles until drv authorities replaced editors more compliant cadres. anxious prevent beijing exerting political influence on chinese minority, in 1970s north vietnamese leaders resorted various methods of forced assimilation. @ first sought pressure ethnic chinese adopt vietnamese citizenship, handful of hoa cadres complied, of whom heavily assimilated individuals anyway. thereupon authorities attempted seize chinese passports of ethnic chinese under various pretexts, hoa refused give passports. regime made repeated efforts transform chinese minority schools mixed chinese-vietnamese schools in hoa children study vietnamese pupils , curriculum based on standard north vietnamese curriculum. authorities ceased hire hoa interpreters, nor did employ hoa in offices in regular contact foreigners. ethnic chinese admitted military, , if volunteered service, serve in logistical units not in troops sent front in south vietnam. following battle of paracel islands (a chinese action hanoi disapproved), drv authorities started hinder hoa in visiting relatives in prc.

departure vietnam: 1975-1990

following reunification of vietnam, hoa bore brunt of socialist transformation in south. control , regulation of markets 1 of sensitive , persistent problems faced government following beginning of north–south integration in 1975. government, in doctrinaire efforts communize commercial, market-oriented southern economy, faced several paradoxes. first need both cultivate , control commercial activity ethnic chinese in south, in ho chi minh city. chinese businesses controlled of commerce in ho chi minh city , south generally. following break china in 1978, vietnamese leaders evidently feared potential espionage activities within chinese commercial community. on 1 hand, chinese-owned concerns controlled trade in number of commodities , services, such pharmaceuticals, fertilizer distribution, grain milling, , foreign-currency exchange, supposed state monopolies. on other hand, chinese merchants provided excellent access markets vietnamese exports through hong kong , singapore. access became increasingly important in 1980s way of circumventing boycott on trade vietnam imposed number of asian , western nations. announcement on march 24 outlawed wholesale trade , large business activities, forced around 30,000 businesses close down overnight, followed banned private trade. further government policies forced former owners become farmers in countryside or join armed forces , fight @ vietnam-cambodia border, , confiscated old , foreign currencies, vietnamese currency in excess of value of $250 urban households , $150 rural households.

while such measures targeted @ bourgeois elements, such measures hurt ethnic hoa hardest , resulted in takeover of hoa properties in , around major cities. hoa communities offered widespread resistance , clashes left streets of cholon full of corpses . these measures, combined external tensions stemming vietnam s dispute cambodia , china in 1978 , 1979 caused exodus of majority of hoa, of whom more 170,000 fled overland province of guangxi, china, north , remainder fled boat south. china received daily influx of 4-5,000 refugees, while southeast asian countries saw wave of 5,000 boat people arriving @ shores each month. china sent unarmed ships evacuate refugees, encountered diplomatic problems vietnamese government denied hoa suffered persecution , later refused issue exit permits after many 250,000 hoa had applied repatriation. in attempt stem refugee flow, avert vietnamese accusations beijing coercing citizens emigrate, , encourage vietnam change policies towards ethnic hoa, china closed off land border in 1978. led jump in number of boat people, many 100,000 arriving in other countries end of 1978. however, vietnamese government not encouraged exodus, took opportunity profit extorting price of 5 ten taels of gold or equivalent of $1,500 $3,000 per person wishing leave country. vietnamese military forcibly drove thousands of border refugees across china-vietnam land border, causing numerous border incidents , armed clashes, while blaming these movements on china accusing them of using saboteurs force vietnamese citizens china. new influx brought number of refugees in china around 200,000. 1 family split. ethnic chinese man deported while ethnic vietnamese wife , child left behind.

the size of exodus increased during , after war. monthly number of boat people arriving in southeast asia increased 11,000 during first quarter of 1979, 28,000 april, , 55,000 in june, while more 90,000 fled boat china. in addition, vietnamese military began expelling ethnic hoa vietnam-occupied kampuchea, leading on 43,000 refugees of hoa descent fleeing overland thailand. now, vietnam openly confiscating properties , extorting money fleeing refugees. in april 1979 alone, hoa outside of vietnam had remitted total of $242 million (an amount equivalent half total value of vietnam s 1978 exports) through hong kong ho chi minh city friends or family pay way out of vietnam. june, money refugees had replaced coal industry vietnam s largest source of foreign exchange , expected reach as 3 billion in dollars. 1980, refugee population in china reached 260,000, , number of surviving boat people refugees in southeast asia reached 400,000. (an estimated 50% 70% of vietnamese , chinese boat people perished @ sea.)

since 1986

after nguyễn văn linh put vietnamese economic reforms in 1986, hoa in vietnam has witnessed massive commercial resurgence , despite many years being persecuted have undergone again reassert , regain economic clout in vietnamese economy. open-door policy , economic reforms of vietnam, improved economic , diplomatic relations of vietnam other southeast asian countries has led resurgence of many ethnic chinese of roles played in vietnamese economy. hoa once again influential in development of domestic trade , restoration of business links between ethnic chinese entrepreneurs across vietnam.

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